Battle of Empress Augusta Bay in World War II

Skirmish of Empress Augusta Bay in World War II Skirmish of Empress Augusta Bay-Conflict Date: The Battle of Empress Augusta Bay was battled November 1-2, 1943, during World War II (1939-1945).  Skirmish of Empress Augusta Bay - Fleets Commanders: Partners Back Admiral Aaron Tip MerrillCaptain Arleigh Burke4 light cruisers, 8 destroyers Japan Back Admiral Sentaro Omori2 overwhelming cruisers, 2 light cruisers, 6 destroyers Skirmish of Empress Augusta Bay - Background: In August 1942, having checked Japanese advances at the Battles of the Coral Sea and Midway, Allied powers moved to the hostile and started the Battle of Guadalcanal in the Solomon Islands.â Engaged in an extended battle for the island, various maritime activities, for example, Savo Island, Eastern Solomons, Santa Cruz, Naval Battle of Guadalcanal, and Tassafaronga were battled as each side looked for the upper hand.â Finally accomplishing triumph in February 1943, Allied powers started climbing the Solomons towards the huge Japanese base at Rabaul.â Situated on New Britain, Rabaul was the focal point of a bigger Allied technique, named Operation Cartwheel, which was intended to disconnect and dispose of the danger presented by the base.â As a major aspect of Cartwheel, Allied powers arrived at Empress Augusta Bay on Bougainville on November 1.â Though the Japanese had a huge nearness on Bougainville, the arrivals met little obstruction as the battalion was fixated somewhere else on the island.â It was the aim of the Allies to build up a foothold and develop a runway with which to undermine Rabaul.â Understanding the risk presented by the foe landings, Vice Admiral Baron Tomoshige Samejima, directing the eighth Fleet at Rabaul, with the help of Admiral Mineichi Koga, Commander-in-Chief of the Combined Fleet, requested Rear Admiral Sentaro Omori to take a power south to assault the vehicles off Bougainville. Clash of Empress Augusta Bay - The Japanese Sail: Withdrawing Rabaul at 5:00 PM on November 1, Omori had the substantial cruisers Myoko and Haguro, the light cruisers Agano and Sendai, and six destroyers.â As a feature of his strategic, was to meet with and escort five vehicles conveying fortifications to Bougainville.â Meeting at 8:30 PM, this consolidated power at that point was constrained to sidestep a submarine before being assaulted by single American aircraft.â Believing that the vehicles were excessively moderate and defenseless, Omori requested them back and quickened with his warships towards Empress Augusta Bay.â Toward the south, Rear Admiral Aaron Tip Merrills Task Force 39, comprising of Cruiser Division 12 (light cruisers USS Montpelier, USS Cleveland, USS Columbia, and USS Denver) just as Captain Arleigh Burkes Destroyer Divisions 45 (USS Charles Ausburne, USS Dyson, USS Stanley, and USS Claxton) and 46 (USS Spence, USS Thatcher, USS Converse, and USS Foote) got expression of the Japanese methodology and withdrew their dock close to Vella Lavella.â Reaching Empress Augusta Bay, Merrill found that the vehicles had just been pulled back and started watching fully expecting the Japanese assault. Clash of Empress Augusta Bay - Fighting Begins: Drawing closer from the northwest, Omoris ships moved in cruising development with the overwhelming cruisers in the inside and the light cruisers and destroyers on the flanks.â At 1:30 AM on November 2, Haguro supported a bomb hit which diminished its speed.â Forced to ease back to oblige the harmed substantial cruiser, Omori proceeded with his advance.â A brief timeframe later, a floatplane from Haguro mistakenly announced spotting one cruiser and three destroyers and afterward that the vehicles were all the while emptying at Empress Augusta Bay.â At 2:27 AM, Omoris ships showed up on Merrills radar and the American authority coordinated DesDiv 45 to make a torpedo attack.â Advancing, Burkes vessels terminated their torpedoes.â At roughly a similar time, the destroyer division drove by Sendai additionally propelled torpedoes. Skirmish of Empress Augusta Bay - Melee in the Dark: Moving to stay away from DesDiv 45s torpedoes, Sendai and the destroyers Shigure, Samidare, and Shiratsuyu turned towards Omoris substantial cruisers upsetting the Japanese formation.â Around this time, Merrill coordinated DesDiv 46 to strike.â In progressing, Foote got isolated from the remainder of the division.â Realizing that the torpedo assaults had fizzled, Merrill started shooting at 2:46 AM. These early volleys seriously harmed Sendai and caused Samidare and Shiratsuyu to impact.  Pressing the assault, DesDiv 45 moved against the northern finish of Omoris power while DesDiv 46 struck the center.â Merrills cruisers spread their fire over the sum of the foe formation.â Attempting to control between the cruisers, the destroyer Hatsukaze was slammed by Myoko and lost its bow.â The crash additionally made harm the cruiser which immediately went under American fire.  Hampered by incapable radar frameworks, the Japanese returned discharge and mounted extra torpedo attacks.â As Merrills ships moved, Spence and Thatcher knock however supported little harm while Foote took a torpedo hit that brushed off the destroyers stern.â Around 3:20 AM, having lit up some portion of the American power with star shells and flares, Omoris ships started to score hits.â Denver continued three 8 hits however the entirety of the shells neglected to explode.â Recognizing that the Japanese were having some achievement, Merrill laid a distraction which severely restricted the enemys visibility.â Meanwhile,â DesDiv 46 concentrated their endeavors on the stricken Sendai.  At 3:37 AM, Omori, wrongly accepting that he had sunk an American overwhelming cruiser however that four more stayed, chosen to withdraw.â This choice was strengthened by worries about being trapped in sunshine by Allied airplane during the journey back to Rabaul.â Firing a last salvo of torpedoes at 3:40 AM, his boats turned for home.â Finishing off Sendai, the American destroyers joined the cruisers in seeking after the enemy.â Around 5:10 AM, they connected with and sank the severely harmed Hatsukaze which was straying behind Omoris force.â Breaking off the interest at first light, Merrill came back to help the harmed Foote before expecting a situation off the arrival sea shores.  Clash of Empress Augusta Bay - Aftermath: In the taking on at the Conflict of Empress Augusta Bay, Omori lost a light cruiser and destroyer just as had an overwhelming cruiser, light cruiser, and two destroyers damaged.â Casualties were assessed at 198 to 658 killed.â Merrills TF 39 supported minor harm to Denver, Spence, and Thatcher while Foote was crippled.â Later fixed, Foote came back to activity in 1944.â American misfortunes totaled 19 killed.â The triumph at Empress Augusta Bay made sure about the arrival sea shores while a huge scope attack on Rabaul on November 5, which incorporated the air bunches from USS Saratoga (CV-3) and USS Princeton (CVL-23), incredibly diminished the danger presented by Japanese maritime forces.â Later in the month, the center moved upper east to the Gilbert Islands where American powers landed Tarawa and Makin. Chosen Sources: World War II Database: Battle of Empress Augusta BayBattle of Empress Augusta Bay - Order of BattleHistory of War: Battle of Empress Augusta Bay

Human Resource Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words - 17

Human Resource Management - Essay Example m of this investigation is to feature the primary purposes behind the staff turnover and to prescribe techniques to lessen the staff turnover inside the association. Prior to moving into the organization and subtleties of the representative turnover, it is basic to get a concise diagram of the general travel and the travel industry of UK. This will at that point be trailed by brief review of Thomas Cook and its representatives and the significant reasons for the staff turnover. The UK travel and the travel industry is one of the biggest over the world. The nation has nonstop inbound traffic from over the world. The nation has been perceived to have ‘league position’ as far as the universal traveler entering the nation just as the income that the nation gains from the visitor (Visit Britain - Trends, 2010). The chart beneath gives an away from of the country’s generally speaking abroad visits. The diagram unmistakably shows that the meeting of the nation has brought by 11% when contrasted down with April 2009 (National Statistics, 2010). Anyway the diminishing as far as the relating time frame to the prior year has been a decline of 4% (Visit Britain, 2010). The above diagram gives an away from of the worldwide inbound travel. This chart has been given to give a short review of the country’s generally travel and the travel industry showcase (Visit Britain - Trends, 2010). The following segment will give a point by point review of Thomas Cook and the issues being looked inside the organization, relating to the workers and the turnover rate. Thomas Cook is perceived to be one of the world’s best and most notable names in the field of movement. The organization was begun in 1841 and took into account one †day rail outings. The organization has developed from this and has become the most eminent organization over the UK. The organization manages a wide scope of administrations as of now and these incorporate flights, lodgings, occasion bundles, travels and various city breaks. Thomas Cook has a wide number of workers and the organization

19 Summers

19 Summers Today, I accidentally dated a journal entry 18 August 2008. As I realized my mistake and erased the year, I realized that 2008 was three years ago. People born on 18 August 2008 are walking and talking all over the globe. It was a terrifying moment. Feeling old got me thinking about the impending school year; the end of August is coming up soon (how is this possible? Did July even happen?) and that will mark the end of my 19th summer. Feeling old also got me reflecting on those 19 Junes, Julys, and Augusts*. I figure that you might be curious about how I spent my summers (particularly those in high school, since theres an entire section on the MIT admissions site about it) so heres a breakdown. If you arent interested in my pre- high school days, skip down to Summer 13 (the numbers correspond to my age at the time). *It took me forever to write this sentence. Ideas on how to pluralize things like June and July? I had to stop myself from typing Julies. Summer 0: I cried, and ate. And pooped and peed. Basically, not much has changed since then, except that I now do these things less frequently and with more consideration for other people. The fact that I made faces like this is further evidence that not much has changed: How I express disapproval to this day. Summers 1 2: Daycare. I remember absolutely nothing about this. Summer 3: Montessori school. I remember nothing, but apparently Montessori school means that I went around to a bunch of different stations (math, language, reading, etc) at my own pace. In the fall, I started kindergarten. Summers 4 5: Summer camp run by my school. The usual little kid stuff: arts and crafts, games, singing, dancing, running around. I received my first report card, and decorated it with a drawing that I labeled bath cat. I havent the slightest clue what that means, so if you do, please enlighten me. Summers 6-8: Mandarin summer camp, also run by my school. I poured tea, cooked spring rolls and dumplings, sang songs in Chinese, and dressed up as a Chinese opera singer. At some point, I probably learned some Mandarin, too. Summer 9: My family moved to London, and I started Middle School in the fall. Summers 9-11: Sports camp, run by my school (oh, to be young and athletic once more) I remember fencing (foil), archery, football (soccer), tennis, capture-the-flag, and missing the bus to the golfing range; I was super upset, because I had to spend the day playing with the little kids, and we all know that being 9 years old means being above that. Summers 12: Basketball camp. Not a clue why I decided to do this. And now: HIGH SCHOOL! Summers 12-15: CTY Itll be difficult to do justice to this in a few sentences, but Ill try. This is an academic summer program: you take one or two three-week long college-level classes, some of which you can get credit for (I didnt do any of those.) There are six-ish hours of lecture during the day, and a bunch of different activity options in the late afternoon (cloud-watching is there pretty regularly, as are acting improv, competitive number counting, and fun with duct tape). There are campuses all over the US, although everyone knows that Lancaster (PA) is the best site*. The classes I took were (in order): Archaeology (which I signed up for in order to study dinosaurs whoops), Astronomy, Cryptology, and Game Theory. *Really. Ask anyone. And by anyone I mean me and the people I went to camp there with. I loved CTY. I loved the classes, but more than anything I loved the people and Im still friends with a number of them today. Occasionally, I bump into a couple of my fellow Lancaster-ians on MIT campus. For more information on the program, heres the official website, and heres a better website. Summer 15: A French language program. I spent lived with a host family in Antibes that didnt speak a word of English and my conversational French improved more in those two weeks than in years of classes at school. You cant compare an in-the-classroom learning environment with actually going to the country and being forced to speak the language in order to communicate. Summer 16: SSP (yay! more three-letter acronyms!) There were 36 of us on the New Mexico campus, out in Socorro (more commonly known as The Middle Of Nowhere). During the day, we had lectures on topics in physics, astronomy, calculus, and programming (Python). We were divided into teams of three, and each team picked a near-earth asteroid (2002 KL6 I LOVE YOU! And miss taking pictures of you!). Over the six weeks, we collected observations of our asteroid (the 1-3am observatory session made for great team bonding experiences) and used our newly-acquired physics/astronomy/calculus/programming skills to calculate its orbit. That last night, most of us pulled all-nighters putting our final orbit determination report together but man, was that sunrise beautiful. Another SSP alum is our very own Chris S. 11 :) We hosted guest speakers, ranging from a CIA case officer to a guy doing research on parisitic infections at the University of Washington. We (well, some of us) played Settlers of Catan at 2am, and stayed up all night psetting (a good preview of MIT life). Like CTY, I made friends here who Im close to even now and I see my old room-mate around MIT :) (hi Demetra!) Also, this summer marked the first time I saw the Milky Way or any dark night sky, for that matter. I cried (dont judge IT WAS BEAUTIFUL, OKAY?). For more information, heres the website. Theres also a nice summary on the MIT Admissions site. Summer 17: Research at the Sandia National Laboratories I spent a summer back in New Mexico (cant get enough of that place) working in the Cognitive Science department of Sandia National Laboraties. I was the research assistant to the niece of my old Robotics mentor (woo team 1884!) he heard of the job posting, remembered that I was interested in neuroscience (I spent half my time with him babbling about how brains are awesome), and encouraged me to apply. I lived with a stranger for seven weeks, went to work with strangers and had such an adventure that it took TWO BLOG POSTS to describe (here and here). Summer 18: Research at MIT which brings us to now! Im working with a grad student to analyze huge datasets of genes from people with various stages of colorectal cancer: we use statistical tests and biology software to try and identify pathways that might be associated with the disease. Right now, most of my time is spent learning, and coding in, Perl, which has been, well lets just say that I think I scream more while coding in Perl than while riding a rollercoaster or watching a scary movie. And thats saying something. So, those are the 19. All have zipped by soon, itll be time to start thinking about Summer 20, which is hard to believe. I hope youre having a great summer!

Taking a Look at Social Engineering - 1177 Words

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This style of identity theft is becoming more popular, because of the ease with which unsuspecting people often divulge personal information to phishers (credit card numbers, social security numbers, and mothers maiden names). Once this information is acquired, the phishers may use a persons details to create fake accounts in a victims name and ruin a victims credit, or even prevent victims from accessing their own accounts. Case #1: ‘GoDaddy’, one of the companies involved in the social engineering case. The company admits that one of its employees was ‘socially engineered’Show MoreRelatedTypes Of Technologies Used With Social Engineering Attacks876 Words   |  4 Pagestechnologies can be used with social engineering attack Following are the some technologies which can be used with social engineering attacks. 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Social engineering targets this, and it has worked very effectively for them. According to Raj Samani and Charles McFarland, social engineering is â€Å"the deliberate application of deceitful techniques designed to manipulate someone into divulging information or performing actions that may result in the release of that information†Read MoreTo Love, Have Kindness, Be Compassionate, And To Show Patriotism1013 Words   |  5 Pageslives. In the field of engineering, these virtues are the building blocks for developing a virtuous career. Engineers must hold themselves to a higher character and evolve their thoughts to adjust to any situation. Engineers will continuously grow their virtues through the acquisition of knowledge in college, and the experiences they will address in careers. In this paper I will first explai n the ideas of Aristotle’s theory of virtue ethics, share my thoughts on specific engineering virtues I have obtained

A Paper on Bipolar Disorder - 1223 Words

I have chosen to do a paper on Bipolar Disorder. Bipolar is a disorder in when a person’s mood inappropriately alternates between feelings of mania and depression. A bipolar mania is a mental illness classified by psychiatry as a mood disorder. Also individuals with bipolar disorder experience episodes of an elevated or agitated mood known as mania or hypomania, depending on the severity alternating with episodes of depression. This depression also comes with a lot of symptoms which could lead to other disorders or problems. The symptoms of bipolar are inability to complete tasks (could turn you into a compulsive hoarder or you just not able to complete all your tasks on time or when you want to finish them), depression (could have you†¦show more content†¦Patients typically need to take multiple medications. On average, people with bipolar disorder take three medicines at the same time. There is also life management. According to both experts, cultivating healthy habits is paramount. Sleep deprivation and substance abuse exacerbate bipolar disorder and derail treatment. Make sleep a priority. Try to get seven to eight hours of slumber per night, and wake up at the same time each morning. Another is social support often the success or failure of treatment has to do with how the family is involved. There is also psychotherapy the backbone of treatment is medication. But psychotherapy is enormously important Interpersonal and social rhythm therapy is for families and couples to learn to communicate more effectively and reduce really intense emotional experiences. There are several medications to use for bipolar disorder Lithium (Lithobid, others) is effective at stabilizing mood and preventing the extreme highs and lows of certain categories of bipolar disorder and has been used for many years. Anticonvulsants, these mood-stabilizing medications include valproic acid (Depakene, Stavzor), divalproex (Depakote) and lamotrigine (Lamictal). 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Out of My League Free Essays

How many people do you know that have broken up with someone and later wanted them back because they were jealous of their new girlfriend? Or perhaps, have you ever lacked the confidence to approach someone? Well the movie She’s out of my League is all about that. The movie is about a guy name Kirk who is played by Jay Baruchel. He is an average Joe who can’t believe his luck. We will write a custom essay sample on Out of My League or any similar topic only for you Order Now Although he’s stuck in a seemingly dead-end job as an airport TSA security agent, against all odds, Molly which is played by Alice Eve, a successful and outrageously gorgeous babe, has fallen for him. Not only is Kirk stunned, but his friends, family and his ex-girlfriend, too. Now he has to figure out how to make the relationship work, even though he’d be the first to admit she’s totally out of his league. She’s out of my League was a well-structured film in my opinion. This film was unified around a central theme. The theme of the film is that it is ridiculous to rate people based on looks and decide that you can’t be with someone based on some rating of 1 to 10. In the beginning of the movie, Kirk is having a confrontation with is ex-girlfriend Marine. Marine had ended her relationship with Kirk for more than 2 year and she was extremely contemptuous of his continued romantic interests after his latest pursuit. The producers of this movie couldn’t have thought of a better way to open the movie. The plot and the events, conflicts, and characters that constitute it must be carefully selected and arranged so that their relationship to the theme is clear (Boggs, Petrie, 2008). This was the most important scene of the movie because it leads the way for other events to happen naturally and logically. In this scene, the producers wanted to get the viewer to see two points. One point making it clear that Marine didn’t want to be in a relationship with Kirk and that it was over. Another point being that Kirk was really crush about the break up so his self-esteem is really low at this point. This also made an early impression of what type of person Kirk was called characterization thought appearance. He seems to be a fairly dorky and dumb type of person. Later in the movie, one morning while Kirk was at work, a beautiful woman name Molly arrives at the passenger terminal for her flight to New York. While she was proceeding through security, her striking looks attracted unwanted attention and harassment from several male employees. Kirk is the only employee to treat her courteously. I really like this part because Kirk was just being himself and Molly saw the him for the person that he really was. In this scene, the producers wanted us to believe that Kirk didn’t have a chance with Molly because it seems that she was out of his league. But, who would have thought that Molly would be the one to be coming on to Kirk. After Kirk finally hooks up with Molly, the successful and outrageously gorgeous babe, Marine finds herself jealous and wants Kirks back. The only reason that Molly has this sudden interest in Kirk again is because she feels upstaged by Molly’s looks. In this scene, it makes the saying, â€Å"a woman doesn’t want a man until someone else has him† a true statement. With those two senses that were mentioned, it gives you a lot to think about. One being that you really don’t appreciate something until it’s gone. In this movie Kirk was a type of person that needed to be with a person that would help and motivate him to achieve his goals. Marine wasn’t that type of person. When Molly came along, she really brought out the best in Kirk. As Kirk begins the better himself, Marine begins to see all the things that Kirk was capable of, but by this time it was too late. Personally, I really did find this movie meaningful. There were a lot of points that could have been taken from this movie. The two points that I retrieve from this movie is that it is ridiculous to rate a person based on looks and decide that you can’t be with that someone based on some rating and it is true that you don’t see what you have until its gone. How to cite Out of My League, Essay examples

Technological Disasters - The De-Havilland Comet free essay sample

This paper is an examination of the effects a technological disaster such as an airplane accidents has on our lives and the world around us. This paper examines technological disasters in the airline industry. In particular it looks at the British jet aircraft industry after the accidents. It allows us to gain insight into what people?s conceptions were, and why certain events unfolded as they did. It shows us how people can learn from technological disasters, and even though they seem catastrophic at the time, they give us the necessary tools to insure that such disasters do not happen again. From the paper: The Comet planes, operated predominantly by BOAC had established Britain as both a successful pioneer and leader in civil jet aviation. However, several American companies, including Boeing, were in hot pursuit of de-Havilland, fighting for their share of the new civil jet market. ?The Comets symbolized to Britons their nation?s pre-eminence in jet aviation,? 5 and so the accidents came as a devastating blow, both in the short and long term. We will write a custom essay sample on Technological Disasters The De-Havilland Comet or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page In the aftermath of the accidents, all Comets were grounded pending investigation, causing huge problems and losses.

Eveline And Araby

Eveline And Araby Eveline and Araby Both Eveline and Araby were well written short stories by James Joyce. Reading these two stories without performing any analysis or study, it would be improbable to notice their similarities considering they embody abstruse and obscure symbols within their settings and situations. But after meticulous study, the similarities in their themes and plot become clear and apparent.Eveline and Araby share the same theme, which is that knowing the distinctions between the real and the ideal can be momentous. Not knowing this distinction will create confusion and conflict in life as it did for Eveline and the boy. For Eveline, it nearly took her down the wrong path in life with Frank. For the boy, it had created isolation for him and nearly took him down the wrong path in life with false dreams and love for Mangan's sister.There are bountiful similarities between the plots of Eveline and Araby.Afscheid Eveline de HaanThey both have significant patterns in their sequence of a ctions. One point or another before the climatic moment, the protagonist's situation was revealed. In Eveline, she was in a situation torn between two worlds and was in need of guidance by "God". She was in a state of confusion and needed him "to direct her" and help her choose which road to take. In Araby, the boy was also in a situation torn between what was real and ideal and he needed guidance in the "blind" world around him. Since he was in a state of isolation, it made him more vulnerable to confusion. Like Eveline, he wasn't able to receive the guidance that he needed. Both stories also similarly reveal the protagonist's hidden cause of confusion (central conflict). Eveline was too focused on the boring and horrible aspects of her life, that she got confused...

Caroline Young Murdered Her Grandchildren for Revenge

Caroline Young Murdered Her Grandchildren for Revenge Carolina Young was a 51-year-old grandmother who was  convicted of murdering her two grandchildren. She received the death penalty. Young stabbed the children to death after learning that she had lost a custody battle with her grandsons father.   Young received custody of her two grandchildren because their mother, Vanessa Torres, was deemed unfit and was sent  to jail after she was convicted of being involved in drugs and prostitution. Torres testified that on June 18, 1993, the day of the murders, she saw blood on her mothers clothing and then found her son,  6-year-old son, Darrin Torres, lying on the bed dead with his throat cut. Carolina Young had stabbed herself in the abdomen at least a dozen times. When Torres picked up Darrin and then placed a call to the police department, Young took 4-year-old Dai-Zshia Torres into another room and stabbed and slashed at her until her to death. With the child dead beside her, Young repeatedly told her daughter that she no longer wanted to live. According to Torres, her mother Carolina Young, killed the children because she was angry that she had lost custody of the boy to his father. The father, Barrington Bruce,  a Marine recruiter from Virginia, did not know that he had a son until he was contacted by the state and told that he owed $12,000 in back child support. He then petitioned the court for custody of Darrin and received it. Bruce had arrived in the Bay Area on the same day as the murders. He was scheduled to pick up Darrin and bring him on a permanent basis to his home in Virginia. Young wrote a letter to her grandchildren and to their father on the day that she murdered them, saying in part,  I am a very unhappy spirit now on a rampage to get even with all that hurt me and mine, Young wrote to the boys father. Ill be back to show you how it feels to lose someone you really love . . . your daughter. Im coming back for her. Every baby your wife has I will come back and get.   Prosecutor Ken Burr said that before the children were murdered, Young told a friend,  I will kill the kids and take them with me to hell. Youngs lawyers argued that she should not be found guilty by reason of insanity and at the very most should be convicted of second-degree murder because the murders were not premeditated. The jury deliberated for just two and a half hours  before deciding that Young was guilty of first-degree murder and should receive the death penalty. Penalty Phase During the penalty phase of the trial,  Barrington Bruce  testified that when he learned that he had been granted custody of his son Darrin, that he felt like Christmas magnified by 10 but added that a dark cloud came over me when he found out that his son had been murdered. Youngs lawyer, Michael Berger, said that she committed the murders because she was mentally ill.   Berger told the judge, What sits before you is a sick woman and we have reached the point in the late 20th century where we dont execute sick people,   Vanessa Torres made a last-minute appeal for mercy in an effort to save her mothers life. Verdict Superior Court Judge Stanley Golde did not agree with Bergers assessment of Young, saying that her emotional problems had no effect on her ability to know what she was doing.  The judge then sentenced Young to death. In issuing the death sentence, the judge said Youngs conduct was totally repulsive to society and the killing of children is in effect the death of all society. Carolyn Young was the first woman ever given the death penalty in Alameda County, or so it is believed. On September 6, 2005, Young died of kidney failure at Central California Womens Facility in Chowchilla, California. Natural death is the most common way that death row inmates die in California. Since 1976, 13 men convicted of murder have been executed in California. The last woman executed in California was  Elizabeth Ann Duncan who was convicted of planning the murder of her daughter-in-law. Duncan was executed by the gas chamber in 1962.

Understanding Middle Eastern Politics and Global Hegemony Essay

Understanding Middle Eastern Politics and Global Hegemony - Essay Example This perspective, according to Verbeek (2003), is strengthened by a traditional realist framework which integrates the positivist handbook reflection of international law and hence believes that international law is either at best simply a rationale for decision made based on interests in power politics or immaterial to concerns for national interest. Existing literature reviews show evidently the meagerness of scholarly attempts to explain the Suez crisis within the context of realist theory. The realist argument that law was quite irrelevant to either American or British foreign policy, outside its ability to give explanation for foreign policy, seems to neglect the historical proof that suggests international law had a greater significant effect on British and American foreign policy conduct (Fawcett, 2009). The realist argument that international law was either an easy alibi for policy motives or lacking relevance, as regards to British policy, seems to be flawed. Historical docu ments indicate that legal concerns were a major component considered by both American and British legislators in the development and execution of foreign policy throughout the Suez crisis (Fawcett, 2009). Realist theory, according to Hansen (2011), with its focus on actual exercises and demonstrations of power, would expect that if ever international law could consider the conduct of the State it would be to defend course of action where law reinforced the favored policy. If the State is somewhat less dominant or influential and in a ‘lower’ legal status, in the sense that its favored course of action would more simply be judged ‘unlawful’, realism would expect that law would become irrelevant to the policymaking process (Mattern, 2005). Realism would expect that... The researcher states argument that law was quite irrelevant to either American or British foreign policy, outside its ability to give explanation for foreign policy, seems to neglect the historical proof that suggests international law had a greater significant effect on British and American foreign policy conduct. The realist argument that international law was either an easy alibi for policy motives or lacking relevance, as regards to British policy, seems to be flawed. Historical documents indicate that legal concerns were a major component considered by both American and British legislators in the development and execution of foreign policy throughout the Suez crisis. Realist theory, according to Hansen, with its focus on actual exercises and demonstrations of power, would expect that if ever international law could consider the conduct of the State it would be to defend course of action where law reinforced the favored policy. If the State is somewhat less dominant or influenti al and in a ‘lower’ legal status, in the sense that its favored course of action would more simply be judged ‘unlawful’, realism would expect that law would become irrelevant to the policymaking process. Realism would expect that international law would become immaterial to a State where law and policy objectives conflict, and particularly in cases where the State is rivaling a quite stronger State and law is not an expression of ‘actual power’ as defined by realism.

The Impact of Total Quality Management on Employees Productivity Research Proposal

The Impact of Total Quality Management on Employees Productivity - Research Proposal Example This research paper will is based on the concept of total quality management but it will take a detour from the common studies that have been undertaken in regards to this concept, which have largely been centered on management issues. Moreover, studies conducted by Creech (1994) stated that total quality management (TQM) is aimed towards creating excellence and due to this fact; it focuses on promoting the right attitudes within organizations and even implementing control measures in order to avoid costly mistakes. The detour will lead to a research study that seeks to investigate the impact of TQM on the level of productivity amongst the employees. Productivity in this context will refer to the performance measure of both employee effectiveness and efficiency. It will be important to conduct this research study because in a majority of the widely available scholarly literature there is very little mention of how TQM directly affects the level of employee productivity. This research gap provides a justification for conducting this present research study, as it will seek to establish the relationship between the fundament concepts of excellence or TQM and their direct impact on the level of employees’ productivity. This means that a method of a measure will be established in order to gauge the extent to which the fundamental concepts of TQM influence the level of employee productivity. First, Evans and Lindsey (2008) defined total quality management as a combination of socio-technical processes that are aligned towards doing the right things (externally), everything right (internally), first time and all the time, with economic viability considered at each stage of each process. In the writings by Goetsch and Davis (2010), they argued that organizations, which have  implemented TQM have always been able to undertake strategic planning in order attain the mission as well as make significant strides towards their vision. Goetsch and Davis (2010) further argued that such organizations are always capable of achieving a balanced set of results, which enables them to attain long-term as well as short-term objectives.

Risk Analysis of German Banks

Risk Analysis of German Banks During this assignment, the German banks data were compared to that of France and Italy banks. A simple regression analysis was performed. The data suggests that there are great variations in the basic principles when are applied in finding out the exact risks. In general, it is noted that that the France and Italy banks are more riskier than the German banks. In the financial institutions, the risks are assessed in a very particular manner. The purpose of discussing risks is to encourage the investors in the banking sectors. Therefore the managements and high level authorities in the banking system apply the various tools in addressing the risks. It is very eminent that the with out the support of the banking systems by and large the businesses can not grow, as these should be. Therefore there must be some ways of addressing the risks in the very first place. Including to satisfy the share holders and stakeholders, and other stakeholders, (Watson and Head, 2005). There are eminent differences in between the emerging market financial systems and the banking systems of developed countries. However the reasons for this significantly. It is noted that the various researchers, scholars, and academicians have shown divided ideas. As we can that some of them had a firm view about the unstable macroeconomic environment, and rest of the scholars have come forward with the point about weaker risk management practices, (Beck et al. 2003). Keeping the importance of risks assessment and its management, the followings are highlighted, so that this issue can understood in an acceptable way. Literature of Review: The banks invest their money in the different projects, such as buying of shares, construction projects, and other financial intuitions. There is also a fact that the management s in the banks monitor, evaluate and judge the performance of their projects during and after the completion of projects. Similarly, Ma, and Eli (2005) indicated that the implementers in the banking sectors must get the lessons for the previous years, failing to this would be failure of the whole project. Basically they (Ma and Eli) did support the theory of application, which suggests that investing directly to the system do not justify the action. There must be a some kind of rational in addressing the risks in the financial and highly competitive environment. In addition, to above, according to Bank for International Settlements, (2002) and Topping (2005) while highlighting the importance of risks evaluation and its management indicated that the some of the factors which contribute the risks are such as, the changing nature of macroeconomic risks, new forms of risks to the banks, and whether or the abilities, skills and other measures have really improved in addressing the issues of risks. In very simple words, it is found that the risks increase when the banks do not imply certain methods. These methods are related to see and judge the results of previous years when there were projects in the pipe lines. Some of the high rated researchers, scholars and professionals such as Chris (2008) and Topping (2005) basically indicated the following levels are addressed and if done, then there are less chances of increasing risks, such as: Risk identification: This is very basic stage where the banks can identify the risks. In simple meaning in the inputs are discussed broadly, and its implications are noted before, during and after the completion. In broader sense, this is done at the sites, where projects will be launched. Particularly, the following points can help in identifying the risks, such as: †¢ Who will take responsibility for risk identification? †¢ Process for risk identification, including existing and new products, and †¢ Regularity in reviews. Risk measurement: The followings nine factors can be measured during risk measurement such as: Capital, Assets, Market risks, Earnings, Liabilities, Business, Internal Controls, Organisation, Management. Whereas while talking about frequency of risk measurement, the followings should be noted very carefully, such as: Sources of data, it includes market prices and position information Risk measurement tools, given the complexity and level of risk assumed, Ability to measure risk at both transactional and portfolio levels. Methodology to ensure all identified risks are monitored, Accuracy, and clarity of monitoring reports, Involvement of management and staff in having the reports, Comparability of output against predetermined limits. http://www.fsa.gov.uk/pubs/policy/p10.pdf The benefits of risk assessment: There are multi-layered assessment benefits to the banks and financial institutions. It include such as to make profits and distribute among the shareholders. It helps the clients for the banks others (employees) satisfied. This brings more jobs to the public and indirectly helps in boosting GDP. The risk assessment keeps busy the staff in doing their professional work. It can be seen that the supervisors need to spend time on-site discussing the issues with senior bank management. The time taken to perform this work will vary from bank to bank depending on the size and complexity of the institution. However, following a risk assessment, the supervisor will be better placed to decide on the intensity of the future supervision having obtained a better understanding of a banks risk profile. The intensity of supervision and the amount and focus of supervisory action will increase in line with the perceived risk profile of a bank. One advantage this has for banks is that the cost of supervision, in terms of management time or through direct costs. WE have to agree that the banks pay high costs for initial assessments, and in turn if their projects are completed, the banks then take benefit of having high wages and other facilities. The bank official especially in the third world are highly paid. Table 1 shows the three pillars in the banking sector Pillar 1 Minimum Capital Requirements Pillar 2 Supervisory Review Pillar 3 Market Discipline Market risk _ No changes from Basel I Credit risk _ Significant change from Basel I _ Three different approaches to the calculation of minimum capital requirements _ Capital incentives for banks to move to more sophisticated credit risk management approaches based on internal ratings _ Sophisticated approaches have systems/controls and data collection requirements as well as qualitative requirements for risk management Operational risk _ Not explicitly covered in Basel I _ Three different approaches to the calculation of minimum capital requirements _ Adoption of each approach subject to compliance with defined ‘qualifying criteria Banks should have a process for assessing their overall capital adequacy and strategy for maintaining capital levels _ Supervisors should review and evaluate banks internal capital adequacy assessment and strategies _ Supervisors should expect banks to operate above the minimum capital ratios and should have the ability to require banks to hold capital in excess of the minimum (i.e., trigger/target ratios in the United Kingdom; prompt corrective action in the United States) _ Supervisors should seek to intervene at an early stage to prevent capital from falling below minimum levels Market discipline reinforces efforts to promote safety and soundness in banks _ Core disclosures (basic information) and supplementary disclosures to make market discipline more effective Source: KPMG, 2003. The Table 1 above shows the details of three pillars. These guidelines are apparently seems to be quite added information for the banking managements. But again there is an inverse argument, who accepts the challenges, threats and then commits to carry out the assessments, so that the future risks could be minimised at least. Methodology and Data: The data for the banks regarding Germany, France and Italy was analysed by the Excel programme. During this analysis, a simple linear regression was carried out. There were altogether 8 parameters which were used. However in case Germany banks were compared to that of France and Italy. The parameters were such as, index, loans, equity, LA, NIM, ROAA, ROAE, and CIR. As a matter of fact these parameters are the base lines for the banks to work/operate in the competitive financial markets. Results and Discussions: The results of the analysis are presented below. It has already been indicated that the German data is compared to that of France and Italy. The Figure 1 below shows that the relationship between the German banks and France banks seems to be very poor. It means that the ways the German banks are applying are entirely different to that of France and vice versa. Figure 2 discusses the regression analysis of German banks versus Italy banks on the basis of index. It can be seen that again the relationship still very week. The data regarding loans is presented in the following Figure 3, in this case German banks were compared to that of France banks. The results show that the way the German banks are obtaining or lending loans are not comparable to that of France. It can also be seen from that Figure 3 that R2 value is too weak. Figure 4 shows the data comparison between the German banks and Italian banks. Again the regression analysis indicates that there is not good relationship between the two. Even when we look at the equation, it suggests that Italian banks approach is entirely negative to that of German banks regarding extending loan facilities to the businesses. In reality equity is the very important parameters, banks work against equity either way. It means if banks are getting loans from other financial institutions, it works on the basis of equity. It also argued here that the poor relationship between the German banks and France clearly demonstrates that there are more risks for the France banks when compared to German banks (Figure 5). Figure 6 highlights the comparison between German banks and Italy banks. The relationship between the two still very poor. It can also be seen that this relationship is negative. The data regarding LA is presented in Figure 7 and the relationship between German banks and France is indeed very poor. The results of LA regarding German banks and Italy banks suggest that there is negative relationship between the two. The same can be seen from Figure 8. Figure 9 suggests that the relationship regarding NIM for German and Italy banks negative, it means no relationship at all. The data concerning NIM is presented in the Figure 10. It can be seen that the relationship between the German banks and Italy very poor. As this relationship shows negative relationship. The analysis of ROAA regarding German and France banks is given in Figure 11. The negative relationship shows there is no strength in particularly applying the same approach. Again this ratio is highly important to note the differences in the banks. The results of analysis are given in Figure 12. It can be seen that there exists negative relationship between the German banks and Italy banks. Data regarding ROAE ratios is compared between the German and France banks. The same can be seen in Figure 13. The negative R2 value indicated the weakness of the relationship. Figure 14 suggests that the relationship between the German and Italy banks is negative. It means that the way the German banks are calculating ROAE is not same in case of Italy. The data in reference to CIR is shown in Figure 15. The comparison between the German and France banks shows that there is a negative relationship. The comparison about CIR between Germany and Italy clearly shows that there exists negative relationship. The same data is shown in Figure 16. When we look at the Figures above, in most of the analysis conducted for the various parameters show that there is a negative relationship. It means that the strength of the approach differs. As a matter of fact, it is argued that the methods of calculating risks are nearly similar in the German, France and Italy banks. So a question arises, why it is so? There could be many reasons behind the explanations. But very viable and quite acceptable refers to the non availability of the data during the months and years. The data shows big gaps, and further suggests the approaches in calculating risks in the banks are not same as in regarding Germany. Conclusions and recommendations: When we look above, it can be seen that there are different ways and means are being used by the three countrys banks in calculating the various ratios, including loans and debts. It is also very clear that there is no relationship when the data were tested through regression analysis. There is likely possibility that the German banks are not using those principles, where are used by the France and Italy banks, or vice versa. Concerning recommendations, it is suggested that the German banks if use the similar way of in disbursing loans especially; there is high probability that the risks could be deep down compared among the three countrys banks.

Tradgedy After Winning the Lottery

Annotated Bibliography Topic: Tragedy after Winning the Lottery Emory McClard Nissle, Sonja, and Tom Bschor. â€Å"Winning The Jackpot And Depression: Money Cannot Buy Happiness. † International Journal Of Psychiatry In Clinical Practice 6. 3 (2002): 183-186. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Jan. 2012. In the article, Bschor and Nissle claim that desirable or positive life events might influence the course of a psychiatric illness, just as the negative do.The authors discuss how winning the lottery developed the depression of two patients, how hitting the jackpot made them consider suicide, and how receiving over one million dollars has only affected their life negatively. Bschor and Nissle go into a discussion involving ideas about how a positive desired event has hidden risks behind the newly won possibilities, which caused the outbreak in these two cases. Both cases recorded marriage problems, family conflicts, and financial difficulties. Suicidal thoughts were present beca use both patients felt a sense of guilt and inferiority.Bschor and Nissle are organized, knowledgeable, and very clear about their key points. Annin, Peter. â€Å"Big Money, Big Trouble. † Newsweek 133. 16 (1999): 59. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Jan. 2012. In this article, Annin states that â€Å"big money brings big problems. † He discusses multiple negative outcomes from a particular case in 1998 such as friends no longer speaking to the jackpot winner, the new found millionaire being banned from particular areas, and former friends filing for law suits against him.Annin discussed further about how the lottery winner has gone into hiding by removing his telephone number from the phone book, buying a shredder for unwanted mail, and doing his from inside his home. Annin is clear about his points, but not very descriptive. The author clearly stated his points, yet wasn’t as detailed about the winner’s story. Ellen Tumposky, et al. â€Å"The High Cost Of Winning. † People 61. 10 (2004): 150-154. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Jan. 2012.In â€Å"The High Cost of Winning,† Tumposky’s claim is how millions of Americans wish to win millions of dollars in a jackpot, but there are plenty of cases of the lottery winners have unfortunate cases. She discusses how this sudden burst of money can lead to ironic bankruptcy, nasty divorces, broken families, and even hiring hit men. One case describes how a 36 year old man’s lottery money was stolen, forcing him to file for bankruptcy. Another story talked about how her long term boyfriend took advantage of her. One man was drugged, robbed, and arrested. One man was divorced and eventually committed suicide.Another married man sued his wife for not telling him about the win, she was stripped of her entire winnings. The final tale is of a family issue that resulted in the winner’s brother hiring a hit man. Tumposky’s article is interesting yet also ver y informational. Her summaries of the events told the story, yet cut out all of the unimportant details. Douglas, Geoffrey. â€Å"Fortune's Fool. † Yankee 62. 12 (1998): 76. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Jan. 2012. In the article, Douglas tells the reader even the luckiest people can lose it all in the blink of an eye.He discusses the points of error in which this lotto winner was a victim. Things like his sexuality, alcoholism, relationships, and risk-taking personality got him into trouble after he won 5. 86 million dollars. As a boy, Mike Allen was very different. Even his (so-called) friends would tease him. When he won the lottery he began to give and give and give to everyone who asked. His husband ended up filing for divorce and suing him. His money was flashing before his eyes. He ended up in a $30 motel room, dead. All he was left with was a sweatshirt over his beaten face. They took jewelry, a wallet, a car, and his clothes.Douglas’s story was entertaining , but he wasn’t clear about his thesis and main points. Helyar, John. â€Å"Cold Cash. † Money 28. 4 (1999): 144. Academic Search Premier. Web. 27 Jan. 2012. In this story, Helyar’s point is that life after the lottery can be miserable. Helyar tells a story of a two people who tried to win the lottery. He discusses further about their past together, the fortune events, the sad events, and the miserable times that came after winning the lottery. Helyar is a good author and is very descriptive, yet he is extremely verbose. John did tell the entire story, yet he failed to take out the less important events.

The Interesting Ancestors of Emily and Zooey Deschanel

Actor siblings Emily and Zooeys grandfather, Paul Jules Deschanel, was born in Oullins, Rhà ´ne, France  on November 5, 1906, and immigrated to the U.S. in 1930. Pauls parents, Joseph Marcelin Eugà ¨ne Deschanel and Marie Josephine Favre, married in Vienne, Isà ¨re, Rhà ´ne-Alpes, France on April 20, 1901. They both remained in France, although Marie did make several trips to the U.S. to visit her children. The two died in Lyon in 1947 and 1950, respectively. From there the Deschanel line stretches back through several generations of weavers from Planzolles, a tiny commune in the department of Ardà ¨che, France. Additional French surnames in the Deschanel family include Amyot, Borde, Duval, Sautel, Boissin, and Delenne, and the records of many of Emily and Zooey Deschanels French ancestors can be viewed online. Quaker Ancestry The Deschanel sisters paternal grandmother, Anna Ward Orr, descends from a family of Quakers from Lancaster and Chester counties in Pennsylvania. Several, including their great-grandparents Adrian Van Bracklin Orr and Beulah (Lamb) Orr, and great-great-grandparents Joseph M. Orr and Martha E. (Pownall) Orr, are buried in the  Sadsbury Meeting Cemetery. Beulah Lamb, also from a  Quaker family, was born in Perquimans County, North Carolina to Caleb W. Lamb and Anna Matilda Ward. Both the Lamb and Ward families were in Perquimans County for generations. Deep Ohio and New York Roots Ohio roots run deep on the maternal side of the Deschanels family tree. The Weir immigrant ancestor, William Weir, emigrated from Lifford, Donegal, Ireland to America in 1819 aboard the Conestoga, and eventually settled in Brown, Carroll, Ohio. Emily and Zooey descend from Williams youngest son, Addison Mohallan Weir, through his second wife, Elizabeth Gurney. Interestingly, this takes us back to France, as Elizabeths father, George William Guerney was born in France — Belfort (possibly Belfort or another commune in the department of Territoire-de-Belfort) according to the death certificate of his eldest daughter, Jenny (Guerney) Knepper, which also stated that her mother, Anna Hanney, was born in Bern, Switzerland. Another Ohio ancestor of the Deschanels is Henry Anson Lamar, a steamer pilot on the Great Lakes. Henrys wife, Nancy Vrooman, was born in Schoharie, New York, a descendant of Hendrick Vrooman who emigrated from the Netherlands with two brothers to settle in New Netherland (New York) during the 17th century. He sadly was one of 60 people killed at the Schenectady Massacre of 1690. Six generations back in the family tree of Emily and Zooey Deschanel is an interesting New York farmer named Caleb Manchester, descendant of an early Rhode Island family. He and his wife, Lydia Chichester, settled on a farm near Scipioville, Cayuga, New York where they lived for 48 years and  raised 4 sons and 7 daughters, only two of whom survived them. Newspaper accounts tell the story of Calebs sudden death on October 5, 1868, at his home in Scipioville. Caleb Manchester, of Scipio, was discovered lying dead in his barn on Monday last. He went from his house, apparently in usual health, to harness a team, and it is supposed must have been seized by a fit.2 Yes, They Have Irish Ancestry Too Biographies of the Deschanel sisters also often mention their Irish ancestry, which they do have  Ã¢â‚¬â€ their maternal great-great-grandmother, Mary B. Sullivan, was born in Painesville, Lake County, Ohio to Irish immigrants John Sullivan and Honora Burke. Sources Planzolles, Ardà ¨che, France, naissance, Jean Joseph Augustin Deschanel, 26 Mai 1844Central New York News,  The (Syracuse) Journal, 9 October 1868, page 2, col. 1;

The Appeal Of Fantasy Genre - 1046 Words

The appeal to fantasy is very diverse. One of the primary reasons is that â€Å"readers†¦want something that gives [ ] a sense of wonder, a glimpse at the impossible made real, sights [ ] never otherwise see[n],† Cox says. J.K. Rowling effectively displays this with the typical fantasy setting aspects as well as the incorporation of mythical creatures and magic. The fantasy genre has general guidelines when it comes to creating a story for it to be qualified as fantasy. In the fantasy genre, the stories created often have their own world, sometimes parallel to our own. Often seen in the fantasy genre as well is the incorporation of medieval components to the story. Fantasy worlds are sometimes connected to Earth or the non-fictional world through portals. J.K. Rowling begins her story in the muggle world and the reader is then later introduced to the wizarding world. This allows the reader to have a sense of familiarity and increases the appeal of the genre/novel. Her world is connected to the known world through hidden passageways such as platform 9  ¾ and the brick passageway behind the Leaky Cauldron. Although the story of Harry Potter is introduced through the normal world, Rowling connects it to a brand new one using those magical passageways. This is an aspect of the fantasy genre even if the world is not completely separate from thi s one. In addition, the author’s magical world is complete and self-sustained. Although on the same planet, it is a society in itself with itsShow MoreRelatedEssay on Sir Gawain and the Green Knight as Modern Fantasy627 Words   |  3 PagesKnight as Modern Fantasy nbsp; Sir Gawain and the Green Knight, written by an unknown author in the 14th century, can be called a timeless work of poetry. It exudes a certain fantastic quality that, despite its age of over 500 years, still appeals to modern audiences. 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Religious Accommodation For Public Schools - 1128 Words

â€Å"Freedom of religion includes both the right to manifest beliefs and practices and the right to be free from state coercion or constraint in matters of religion ().† One of the most controversial places in which freedom of religion manifests itself is the public school. In order to protect freedom of religion, it is important to make sense of how a school must treat religion so the school does not compromise its role within society. This paper will establish current rulings on religion in public school and then explore what a religious accommodation is, why it may be necessary, and finally how it will take shape within the public school system by using a multitude of examples. This paper argues that religious accommodations for students in public schools are necessary to ensure freedom of religion. 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Norovirus and gastrointestinal disease Free Essays

string(103) " after onset of symptoms, and studies have shown that the viral antigen may be shed for up to 56 days\." Introduction Norovirus is currently recognized as the most important non-bacterial pathogen causing gastroenteritis. It is believed that majority of gastroenteritis that occur throughout the globe is attributed to Norovirus. Norovirus was first recognised through immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) in 1972. We will write a custom essay sample on Norovirus and gastrointestinal disease or any similar topic only for you Order Now However, it is only over the past decade that Norovirus has been of great interest to the basic scientists, virologists, epidemiologists and public health experts. There is no doubt that outbreaks or epidemics of Norovirus in the coming years will challenge the medical community to the limit. Globalisation has created a single, very mobile mega-population of people on earth in which more viruses can thrive, and, a highly infectious illness caused by Norovirus can spread rapidly, thus creating epidemics or even pandemics. The potential breakthrough in the development of Norovirus vaccine with the development of effective antigenic viral-like particles (VLP), and the recognition that Norovirus evolves with antigenic drift will pose exciting challenges to all stakeholders. The other challenges or obstacles which we face include understanding the pathogenesis of the Norovirus in the gastrointestinal tract and identifying the site in the gastrointestinal tract which the virus replicates. This knowledge will hopefully allow the development of targeted antiviral therapy and thus prevent manifestation of severe clinical symptoms. This is a review of this very exciting, virus and I have chosen to amalgamate the current literatures into the following topics: Virology- Classification and structure Biology- Replication and infectivity Epidemiology- Geographic and temporal distribution Transmission Clinical features Pathogenesis Immunity Prevention and control Recent knowledge on contamination/sanitation and personal hygiene Vaccine development Treatments- Current and future Health impact of Norovirus outbreaks in the coming era Virology Classification Although Norovirus was first viewed in 1972, it was not until 1990 when it was classified. Classification of Norovirus could finally be performed due to the successful cloning of the viral genome (1). Molecular cloning and characterisation of Norovirus genome allowed this virus to be classified as a member of Caliciviridae family and it is known as a Group B Biodefense Pathogen. Caliciviruses are small (27-40nm), non-enveloped, icosahedral particles with single-stranded RNA of positive polarity. The name calicivirus comes from the Latin word calyx, meaning â€Å"cup† or â€Å"goblet†, which describes the cup-shaped depression, as observed under electron microscopy. Although they share similar features to that of the picornaviruses, caliciviruses are distinguished from their counterpart by having a larger genome and having distinctive spikes on the surface. Another example of calicivirus is the Hepatitis E virus (2). Currently, there are a few serotypes of Norovirus whic h were successfully identified through immunoelectron microscopy (IEM) and enzyme-linked immunosorbent essay (ELISA), which are represented by Norwalk virus (NV), Hawaii virus (HV), Snow Mountain agent (SMA), Desert Shield virus (DSV) and Southampton virus. (1). Currently, there are five main genogroups of Norovirus being identified (GI, GII, GIII, GIV and GV). Noroviruses, which can be found in humans, are from three genogroups (GI, GII and GIV). However, those that are commonly isolated in cases of acute gastroenteritis in humans belong only to two genogroups (GI and GII), which can then be further divided into genetic cluster or genotypes (i.e GI.1, GII.15, GIV.2 etc). There are now, at least 25 genotypes of Norovirus which were successfully identified, with the prototype Norwalk virus being labelled as GI.1 (Genogroup I, genotype 1) (3) and present within this genotype are numerous subtypes. The presence of this diversity of Norovirus strains are mainly due to both the accumulation of point mutations associated with error-prone RNA replication and to recombination between two related viruses (4, 5). Genogroup I (GI) includes76 Norwalk virus, Desert Shield virus and Southampton virus and Genogroup II (GII), includes Bristol virus, Lordsd ale virus, Toronto virus, Mexico virus, Hawaii virus and Snow Mountain virus. Norwalk virus (NV), Snow Mountain virus (SMV), and Hawaii virus (HV) are the prototype strains of genotypes GI.1, GII.2, and GII.1 and are the causative agents of an estimated 5%, 8%, and 7% of Norovirus outbreaks, respectively (6). Genogroups III and V (GIII and GV) have only been identified in animals. Structure Through structural studies and visualisation of Norovirus by electron microscopy, it is now proven that the Norovirus is composed of 90 dimers of the major capsid protein VP1 and one or two copies of the minor structural protein VP2 (7) which recognizes the histo-blood group antigens, which are regarded as receptors and host-susceptibility factors for infection (3). Figure 1. Structure of Norwalk Virus and Genome Non-enveloped, T=3 icosahedral symmetry, about 23-40 nm in diameter. Each virus particle is composed of 180 molecules of VP1 proteins which form 90-arch-like capsomers at all the local and strict twofold axes surrounding the hollows. The proteins in the capsid then folds into two main domains which are, the shell (S) domain and the protruding (P) domain, which contains two further subdomains, P1 and P2. The protruding, P domain functions to increase the stability of the capsid by increasing the intermolecular contacts between the dimeric subunits, thus, leading to speculation that it may control the size of the capsid. However, the S domain contains all the necessary protein requirements to initiate the assembly of the capsid (8). Norovirus has single stranded RNA genome and is predicted to contain three open reading frames (ORF) (9). The Norovirus genome is linear and contains approximately 7600 nucleotides (nt) (Southampton virus-7708nt, Lordsdale virus- 7555nt) (10). The ORF1 (a polyprotein that contains sequence of amino acid which shows much similarity to that of Picornaviruses) is predicted to encode the capsid protein. ORF1 may be cleaved by 3CL proteases into 6 proteins (11). ORF2 and ORF3 are not shown in the diagram. However, until now, it is not known whether these ORF would be translated or what the function of its translated protein would be. In a recent study, Norovirus- like particles was viewed under atomic force microscopy. Scientist exposed the Norovirus-like particles in environments with PH ranging from 2 to 10. This range of pH values represents the pH of the natural environment in which Norovirus thrives. The study revealed that the Norovirus-like particles were resistant to indentation of measure of 300 bar at acidic and neutral pH. However, when the Norovirus-like particles were subjected to same indentation at a pH of 10, the capsid failed to regenerate and was irreversibly destroyed (12). All these studies which are still at an early stage will pave the way for further understanding of Norovirus. Biology Norovirus Replication Strategy Progress on understanding the basic mechanisms of virus replication has been far slower due to the inability to cultivate virus in the laboratory. Therefore, the replication strategy of this virus remains speculative and is presumed that its replication cycle is of a similar manner to that of picornaviruses (2). As in the picornaviruses, the viral particle will bind to the cell surface receptors. This will result in a conformational change in the viral capsid proteins, and thus, releasing myristic acid (a common saturated fatty acid). This acid then helps in forming a pore in the cell membrane of the host cell and through this tiny hole; the RNA of the virus is injected (101). Once inside the cell, the RNA unwinds and the positive strand RNA genome is replicated through a double-stranded RNA intermediate which is formed using viral RDRP (RNA-Dependent RNA polymerase). Translation by host cell ribosomes is not initiated by the usual 5? G cap; instead it is initiated by IRES (Internal Ribosome Entry Site). The viral replication cycle is short and it takes approximately 8 hours to complete one cycle of replication. Within 30 minutes after initial infection, cell protein synthesis – essentially the macromolecular synthesis of cell is â€Å"shut off†. Over the next one to two hours there is a loss of margination of chromatin and homogeneity in the nucleus. This is followed by synthesis of the viral proteins. Subsequently, a vacuole appears in the cytoplasm close to the nucleus and this vacuole gradually starts to coalace covering the whole cell. After 3 hour time, the cell plasma membrane becomes permeable and at 4–6 hours the virus particles assemble, and occasionally could be seen in the cytoplasm. At about 8 hours, the dead cell lyses and releases the viral particles (101). Infectivity of Norovirus Studies of the stability and hardiness of Norovirus have been done by experimental infection on humans. As Norovirus is the most important cause of food and waterborne disease, it is not unexpected that it is resistant to inactivation by treatment with chlorine concentrations which is usually used in drinking water (1). Norovirus can retain its infectivity even after:- i) exposure to pH2.7 for 3 hours at room temperature, ii) treatment with 20% ether at 4 °C for 24 hours, or iii) incubation at 60 °C for 30 min (13). Norovirus can also retain infectivity after freezing (14). Recent reports have shown that through current sensitive antigen detection methods, Norovirus excretion was detected in 90% of ill volunteers. Viral shedding peaks 1-3 days after onset of symptoms, and studies have shown that the viral antigen may be shed for up to 56 days. You read "Norovirus and gastrointestinal disease" in category "Essay examples" Shedding of virus can occur in asymptomatic individuals and it can be prolonged in immunocompromised people. Also, antigen shedding can precede illness (15hr after infection and before symptomatic illness) (15). Epidemiology The successful cloning and expression of the Norovirus genome has led to the development of new assays which has allowed various epidemiological studies to be performed. Recent epidemiological studies have indicated that the infection with Norovirus is much more widespread than previously recognised (16). Geographic and Temporal Distribution Norovirus is highly infectious and can be spread easily from one person to another and is the leading cause of epidemic gastroenteritis in both the developed and developing countries. However, this epidemic gastroenteritis is usually mild, thus, differentiating it from infantile gastroenteritis (which is mainly caused by Rotavirus), which is a much more severe, and often life threatening diarrheal illness in infants and young children. Incidence of infection by Norovirus has been detected in all continents, and therefore, it has a global distribution. It has been quoted that in the United States, more than 90% of the outbreaks of gastroenteritis in the community, for which the cause was previously unknown, can now be attributed to Norovirus (2). Infection by Norovirus do occur all year round, however, its incidence is markedly increased during cold weather months (17). Outbreaks typically occur in group settings such as cruise ships, schools, camps hospitals and nursing home where p eople gather in confined areas (2) and target a number of high risk populations, particularly young children and the elderly, travellers, soldiers and immunocompromised patients or those who are recipient of organ transplant. Every year, up to 1 million people in the UK are thought to be infected by Norovirus (18). If the Norovirus is brought into the hospital environment by someone incubating the infection, then it can easily spread to vulnerable hospital patients and also to staff. It is known to cause large outbreaks of infection in hospital which results in a lot of patients and staff being affected leading to closure of wards in order to prevent further spread. This has posed a huge problem on care provision. Hospitals, therefore, have very strict policies in place to control the spread of Norovirus which will be discussed later. Transmission Humans are believed to be the only host of the human Norovirus. Norovirus is transmitted mainly by the fecal-oral route. However, it can also be transmitted through infected vomitus (3) and there is currently increasing evidence that it can be transmitted through airbourne or fomite transmission (19 20). The infection of Norovirus is enhanced by several features which facilitate their spread. First, it has a low infection dose (approximately 18 to 1000 viral particles) (21) which allow the virus to spread through droplets, person-to-person contact and through environmental contamination. Secondly, excretion of virus in stools continued for several weeks even after recovery, thus, increases the risk of secondary spread which is a particular concern among food handlers and family members (22). Thirdly, the virus is resistant to a wide range of temperatures, chemicals and pH. The virus is able to persist on environmental surfaces and contaminated objects eg in swimming pools, contamin ated drinking water, ice, bakery products and also in raw oysters, fruits and vegetables which are eaten uncooked and cold foods (celery, melon, vermicelli, sandwiches and cold cooked ham) (3). Fourthly, due to the fact that there is a great diversity of Norovirus strains and the lack of long term immunity, it can result in occurrence of repeated infection throughout life. Finally, the Norovirus genome can also undergo mutations, which causes antigenic shift and recombination, which result in evolution of new strains of Norovirus which are capable of infecting hosts. Asymptomatic infections do occur, and such person may be the carriers of some outbreaks. In recent time, there is an increased in outbreaks in military camps and with the elderly who are staying in nursing or shelter homes, and also in hospital settings (19 20). These infections can be catastrophic because of high secondary attack rates, and such outbreaks can last for several months (18). Clinical features An unresolved problem related to transmission of Norovirus is how long an affected individual can stay infectious. Firstly, the incubation period of the virus is 10-51 hours. The main symptoms are sudden onset of vomiting (more common in children) and abdominal cramps (in 37-45% of the cases) followed by watery diarrhoea (more common in adults). The stools usually do not contain any blood or mucus and asymptomatic infection do occur in approximately 1/3 of the population. The duration of symptomatic illness lasts between 1-3 days (28-60 hr) but can last longer (4-6 days) in nosocomial outbreaks (3) and among children younger than 11 years of age (22). In 15% of patients, it lasts longer than 3 days. The illness also lasts longer in immunocompromised patients and in people with chronic illnesses (3). In immunocompetent adults, the course of Norovirus infection is rapid, with an incubation period of 24–48 hours and resolution of symptoms within 12–72 hours (23). The infec tion is usually less severe compared to other diarrheal infection. However, it can lead to dehydration and requires hospitalization, especially among children with an age of 5 yrs and adults, 65 yrs. Fatalities have been reported in relation to outbreaks of gastroenteritis among the elderly in nursing homes (24) and in the United Kingdom, there is an estimate of about 80 deaths from Norovirus every year among people who are older than 64 years of age (25). However, there are usually no long term effects of Norovirus infection and majority of patients recovers fully. Pathogenesis Because of the failure to cultivate the Norovirus in laboratory properly, our knowledge regarding the pathogenesis of Norovirus come mainly from physical, histological and biochemical studies on infected volunteers who took part in surveys. Proximal intestinal biopsy specimens were taken from ill volunteers and histological changes were compared to healthy individuals. Ill volunteers showed broadening and blunting of intestinal villi, crypt cell hyperplasia, cytoplasmic vacuolization and infiltration of polymorphonuclear and mononuclear cells into the lamina propria but the mucosa itself remaining intact. No histological changes were seen in the gastric fundus or in antrum or colonic mucosa (26). The extent of small intestine involvement remains unknown because studies have only examined the proximal small intestine, and the site of replication of the virus has yet to be identified. Studies have shown that small intestinal brush border enzymatic activity (alkaline phosphatase, sucras e and trehalase) were reduced, resulting to steatorrhea (lipids in stools) and transient carbohydrate malabsorption (27). Jejunal adenylate cyclase activity was not elevated (28) and changes in gastric secretion of hydrochloric acid (HCL), pepsin and intrinsic factor have been linked to these histological changes. In addition, gastric emptying was delayed and the reduced gastric motility may result in nausea and vomiting associated with this gastroenteritis. The binding specificity of Norovirus is based on the histo-blood group antigens. These histo-blood group antigens are complex carbohydrates (oligosaccharides) linked to proteins or lipids and are located on the mucosal epithelial of the digestive tracts and are present as free oligosaccharides in saliva and milk (29). The three major families of histo-blood group antigens- ABO, Lewis and secretor families- are involved in the binding of Norovirus (29). Different Norovirus genotypes have different affinity for ABO antigens. For example, GI Norovirus has a higher affinity for blood group antigens A and O whereas GII Norovirus has a higher affinity for blood group antigens A and B (30). The P2 domain on the viral capsid plays a key role in the binding of these Norovirus to the histo-blood group antigens (31). Prevention and control Outbreaks of Norovirus can result in loss of income and significant morbidity because of frequent secondary transmission of the disease. Places which are more prone to Norovirus outbreaks and are of particular concern are normally places with a closed environment such as hospitals, nursing homes, ships and planes. Because Norovirus is highly infectious and spreads easily, and can be spread via asymptomatic individuals, the prevention of Norovirus outbreaks has become a major obstacle and poses a challenge for us. Norovirus can begin with a single common source of contaminated food (i.e. raw oysters, fruits and vegetables) and can rapidly spread like wildfire through person-to-person contact. Stopping an outbreak of Norovirus requires herculean efforts to sterilise and clean the environment (eg. on cruise ships, camp sites, nursing home, hospital wards or disaster sites), and even then, the epidemics will only subside once the viral pool have been totally eradicated (32,33). No specific methods are available for complete prevention of Norovirus infection or illness due the agent being extremely contagious. Therefore, control efforts are targeted and focused on identifying the source and the subsequent removal of that source (eg, an infected food handler, contaminated water supply or even contaminated food supply, which is often the case with fruits and shellfish- in particular, oysters) which will then reduce the chance of the virus spreading (34). It is advised that ill food handlers should not be able to retain to their job and that strict personal hygiene be enforced among food handlers as they are one of the main causes of outbreaks. However, even under these strict regulations, both measures have shown limited success. The key to stopping the continuous spread of outbreaks is by preventing the secondary spread of the virus which spread through person-to person contact and from contaminated environmental surfaces which normally occur in cruise ships and other institutions. The fact that asymptomatic infection can occur and that the antigen can still be shed 2-3 weeks after exposure need to be kept in mind to facilitate the managing of outbreaks. Methods to manage the outbreak of Norovirus infection will probably improve in the near future as new tests are being carried out in epidemiological research of virus transmission. Recent knowledge on contamination, sanitation and personal hygiene In an outbreak, whether in a hospital or other environment, various methods can be enforced to reduce the spread of Norovirus infection. It is also important to note that Norovirus gastroenteritis, which is highly contagious tend to spread in crowded areas and may be difficult to control, therefore, below, are just a few techniques which can help in controlling this spread. Proper hand washing techniques and washing hands with soap and water is the key to preventing Norovirus from spreading. Note that, alcohol hand gel does not kill the virus entirely, but it may still be useful in areas where water is inaccessible. Also, the efficacy of the alcohol based sanitizers depends on the alcohol type and concentrations as well as the amount of viral particles present (35). * Medical staff and aid workers should clean their hands prior to and after touching any patient but it is particularly important that staffs wash their hands with soap and water after attending to a Norovirus patient to prevent the infection from spreading from one patient to another patient via their hands. Staffs should also be educated about the importance of personal hygiene and about the importance of washing hands. * Visiting relatives of patients in hospitals should also wash their hands with soap and water after visiting a ward which has Norovirus and they should not interact with other patients other than the person they have come to visit. * Staff and visitors should wash their hands before handling food and after visiting the toilet. Hand washing facilities should also be provided especially in high risk areas which are prone to Norovirus infection, such as bathrooms, eating areas, diaper-changing areas and even day care centres. * Proper hand washing techniques (eg. Rub palm to palm with fingers interlaced and rub back of each hand with palm of the other hand with fingers interlaced) should also be advised and encouraged. * Strict personal hygiene among food handlers and aid workers should be enforced to prevent outbreaks of Norovirus. 2. Isolating patients with the virus. *Patients with Norovirus must immediately be isolated from non-infected patient until their symptoms subside. The infected patient should be placed in a single room, but if there are a few cases of infection on the ward, infected patients should then be nursed in a dedicated bay. If there are a large number of cases, the ward should be close to new admissions. Visiting should also be restricted to prevent visitors getting the infection and thus, preventing the subsequent secondary infection of the disease. 3. Cleaning. *Enhanced cleaning using bleach-containing products are needed to eradicate Norovirus from the environment. Vomit and diarrhoea must be cleaned up immediately and general ward cleaning must be increased. Alcohol based surface disinfectants are usually insufficient. Waste should also be dumped properly in the allocated bins. *Aggressive environmental sanitization by cleaning with proper surface disinfectants and sterilisation of bathroom surfaces, bedding and lines are also essential to decrease secondary spread (32). * Studies have shown that when bleaching agent is used on feline caliciviruses, it can inactivate the activity of the virus. Also, the effect of the bleaching agent is superior compared to that of ammonium compounds or phenols (36). 4. Symptomatic people must stay away from hospital. *Staff and visitors who develop symptoms must not come into the hospital and they must remain away from the hospital until they have been free of symptoms for 48-72 hours. Staff must be cleared by occupational health before returning to work. Immunity and Vaccine Developed To develop future vaccines for the prevention of Norovirus infection, the nature of the immunity to Norovirus is of particular importance. In an early study of immunity of the human response system to Norovirus illness, some volunteers who became ill after being exposed to the virus had partial immunity to the disease upon exposure 6 to 14 weeks later, but lost the immunity 27 to 42 months later (37). However, recent studies have shown that these early finding may be inaccurate, since the dose required to infect 50% of volunteers is as low as 18 infectious particles, whereas the dose used in the early study was more than 105 time higher (21). Immunity developed from exposure to a lower dose of Norovirus might be greater and more cross-reactive than immunity against a much higher dose. Therefore, studies on this possibility are still on going. The high incidence of illness caused by Norovirus infections especially among both the young and the elderly have led to some investigations to consider the potential role of vaccines in helping to regulate this infection. The vaccine should be designated towards specific target groups, such as infants (as part of their routine schedule for childhood immunization), the elderly, food handlers, military personnel, travellers, health care workers and nurses in day-care centres (3). The development of vaccines could also play a role in helping to reduce the number of childhood mortality and controlling diarrheal disease in infants. In a recent study, it is noted that 15% of hospitalization of children for diarrhoea in India and 31% in Peru were associated with Norovirus infection (38) and these percentages may be contributing greatly towards the estimated 1.6 million children who die each year from diarrhoea. Nevertheless, recent breakthrough in research has successfully produced Norovir us-like particles (NVLP). These particles have almost identical characteristics to the original Norovirus as it has resistant properties towards acidic pH and is also heat-stable. When these particles are given orally or intranasally to human, it can produce an antigenic effect, stimulating the production of anti-Norovirus antibodies (B and T cell responses) within the human body (39). Therefore, these particles are now being studied, hoping that it could be used as a platform and lead us to discovering a cure one day. However, there are many obstacles towards the development of a vaccine for Norovirus. Firstly, there is certainly a lack of understanding of the physiology of the virus due to the failure to cultivate them in laboratories. Thirdly, there is limited understanding on why individuals cannot develop long term immunity towards the virus. Furthermore, the virus can also withstand a wide range of temperatures and pH thus increasing their survivability. Also, the virus has multiple routes of transmission, and finally, the Norovirus strain is rapidly evolving and mutating, thus, posing a major challenge for us in developing a vaccine, which is much similar to the situation to that of the influenza viruses. Similar to that of the influenza virus, the Norovirus can accumulate point mutation in the outer capsid wall which may result in unique immunoglobulin binding sites (18). Therefore, this antigenic drift will result in the formation of new strains of Norovirus and will require the reformatio n of the vaccines annually (39). Epidemic surveillance using recent updated epidemiological data will allow the identification of predominant strains and identifying a reference vaccine strain each year, similar to the situation of that of the influenza virus (38). Studies on the testing of vaccines are still at an early stage and much work still has to be done. Treatment As discussed above, the symptoms caused by Norovirus are generally mild and self-limited and resolves itself. Currently, there is still no specific treatment for a Norovirus infection apart from letting the infection run its course. Individuals who come down with Norovirus illness do not necessarily need to visit a doctor. Instead, the individual should stay home, to prevent the illness from passing to other people in a community, take paracetamol when necessary to relieve any symptoms or fever and most importantly, oral rehydration, by drinking plenty of water to replace the fluid lost through diarrhoea and vomiting. If an individual is having problems to retain fluids, he/she should try to take in small sips more frequently to ensure one is rehydrated. Rehydration solution can also be consumed to restore all the salts and minerals which were lost during diarrhoea and vomiting. This rehydration solution normally comes in powder form which can then be added with water for drinking. F or individuals who are suffering from severe dehydration, immediate hospitalization is necessary. Fluids should then be given directly into the body by a naso-gastric tube or intravenously. Antimotility agents such as Loperamide may be useful in helping to regulate diarrhoea in individuals with severe symptoms. Opioids are also useful in regulation of diarrhoea by reducing peristalsis. Anti-emetics such as Chlorpromazine, Acepromazine and Metoclopramide may be useful in helping to control vomiting by inhibiting the D2, Dopamine receptors which are found on the chemical trigger zone of the brain. Individuals suffering from Norovirus illness are advised to consume a light diet of foods that are easily digested, such as soup, rice, pasta and bread, but babies should be given their normal feed throughout (102). It has been shown that interferon and ribavirin can effectively inhibit the replication of Norovirus in replicon-bearing cells (40), but their potential therapeutic value needs t o be further investigated. Currently, there are still no anti-viral medications to treat Norovirus. Future research to locate the site of the gastrointestinal tract where the virus replicates may result in development of more specific antiviral therapies targeting the viral replication process. The drugs stated above are only used to control symptoms of Norovirus infection. However, due to the continuous advancement of the field of medicine, all these may change, and once the virus can successfully be propagated in laboratories, studies on them can be conducted which may finally lead us to a cure for Norovirus. Health impact of Norovirus outbreaks in the coming era Norovirus would be with mankind for years to come and even though a vaccine is in the process of being developed, it will require a few more years for it to be perfected. In this era of globalisation, travelling has become a norm in our lives. Every year, it is estimated that approximately 1 billion people travel around the globe for various purposes. Travellers may include tourists, business people, soldiers, refugees, migrants etc. Therefore, from a virus perspective, there will be a linkage of people all around the world with plenty of susceptible individuals which can be infected. For example, through air travel, the virus can be passed on from one continent to another, within a couple of days, and this can result in a pandemic. Currently, travel industry has increased by leaps and bounds. Planned vacations are almost the norm for everyone. Travellers especially vacationers inflicted with Norovirus will almost certainly ruined their travelling plans. On cruise ships or other confined environments, outbreaks of Norovirus can literally bring all leisure activities to a standstill. As global warming continues to be abated, natural disasters like hurricanes, typhoon, and floods appear to be common events. Congregation of people in crowded relief centres, like what happened during the Katrina Hurricane disaster, will form fertile ground for Norovirus to spread. Failure to control the outbreaks will compound the calamites (disasters) and disrupt relief effort. Lastly, as the world is rapidly greying especially in the developed countries, many old aged people will be housed in nursing homes. These confined homes are again sitting duck for Norovirus to strike. As the morbidity and mortality of old people are much worse in Norovirus infection, outbreaks could prove disastrous to these cohorts of greying population. 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Expert Rev Vaccines. 2010;9(3):299-307. Chang KO, Geroge DW. Interferons and ribavirin effectively inhibit Norwalk virus replication in replicon-bearing cells. J Virol 2007;81:12111-8. Websites Richard H.Replication of Polio, Rhino and other Picornaviruses [Internet]. Available from: http://www.pathmicro.med.sc.edu/virol/polio.htm Treating norovirus infection [Internet]. Available from: http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/Norovirus/Pages/Treatment.aspx How to cite Norovirus and gastrointestinal disease, Essay examples